Title: Gender Inequality
Author: Shruti Dakhinkar
Literature Review
1. Global Research
Babović (2018) examined how research on gender and economic inequality is produced worldwide, with a focus on comparing developed countries to Serbia. The researchers analysed international academic journals along with Serbian journals to understand the topics being researched, who is conducting these studies, and which countries contribute the most information in this field.
The findings reveal that most gender inequality research comes from developed areas like Europe and North America. This indicates that knowledge production is uneven globally, with many developing or semi-developed countries underrepresented in research publications. In sociology journals, especially those from Western countries, researchers often discuss gender roles, identities, and cultural expectations, rather than examining economic inequality directly.
In Serbia, while there is research on gender inequality, it is not very visible in national journals. This may give the impression that little research is being done, even when studies are ongoing. The article suggests that future research should include a wider range of countries and investigate whether theories developed in Western nations apply worldwide. It also calls for more recognition of research from less dominant regions to achieve a more balanced understanding of gender inequality.
2. Economic Growth
Castillo, Wu, and Osei-Kusi (2025) studied how gender inequality affects GDP and explains how gender equality, healthcare development, and scientific progress impact economic growth in various countries, particularly those with higher income levels. The researchers examined several factors, including levels of gender inequality, scientific publications, mortality rates, political stability, population size, and GDP.
The results show that countries with lower gender inequality often see better economic growth. When women have equal access to education, jobs, and opportunities, the economy benefits since more people can contribute productively. The study also finds that investment in scientific research and healthcare systems improves economic performance, as healthier populations and technological advancements drive development.
Population size generally has a positive effect on GDP because a larger workforce increases production. However, political stability showed mixed effects depending on each country’s situation. The main conclusion is that governments should reduce gender inequality, promote research and innovation, and strengthen healthcare systems to boost long-term economic growth and national prosperity.
3. Sri Lanka Case
Kularathne et al. (2024) analysed gender inequality in Sri Lanka by reviewing economic and social data from 1990 to 2022. The researchers focused on how factors like GDP, government spending, unemployment rates, and financial policies influence levels of gender inequality.
The study used machine learning models to find patterns and predict trends in gender inequality. The results revealed strong connections between economic conditions and gender inequality. GDP and GDP per capita emerged as key factors affecting inequality levels. Government spending and unemployment rates also played significant roles.
However, the researchers noted that while these factors relate to gender inequality, determining whether economic conditions directly cause inequality or if both are influenced by other social factors is complex. The study suggests policymakers can use predictive tools and economic indicators to develop better strategies for reducing gender disparities, especially during times of economic crisis or instability.
4. Employment Gap
Algül (2024) examined gender inequality and female unemployment across 73 countries investigates how gender inequality affects unemployment rates for men and women across 73 countries from 1990 to 2022. The researchers analysed economic data to understand the impact of reducing gender inequality on employment opportunities.
The results show that as gender inequality decreases, female unemployment also decreases, narrowing the gap between male and female unemployment. Nevertheless, economic conditions like inflation and GDP also influence unemployment differences. Women are often employed in sectors that are more affected by economic fluctuations, making them vulnerable during financial crises.
The study concludes that gender inequality impacts employment opportunities in various ways, including access to education, job availability, and workplace treatment. Addressing inequality can enhance labour market outcomes and create more balanced job opportunities for both men and women.
5. Higher Education
Valero-Ancco et al. (2025) reviewed global research on gender inequality in higher education. The researchers used data from the Scopus database to analyze the number of published studies, which countries are most active in research, and common discussion topics.
The findings show a significant rise in research publications after 2017, reflecting growing awareness and interest in gender inequality in education. The United States and the United Kingdom lead in research output, highlighting the unequal global participation in producing academic knowledge.
Despite the increased attention to research, women still face obstacles in accessing higher education, particularly in developing countries and disadvantaged communities. Cultural norms, financial barriers, and institutional discrimination continue to pose challenges. The article suggests future studies should delve deeper into women’s personal experiences and assess the effectiveness of policies aimed at promoting gender equality in education systems.
6. Institutional Inequality
Folayan et al. (2025) examines how different generations perceive gender inequality in medical and dental research institutions in Nigeria. The study found that younger men and women are generally more aware of gender inequality issues, while older women may not always recognize discrimination due to long-term social conditioning.
Older men sometimes support gender equality but may still hold traditional beliefs that reinforce stereotypes. The research suggests that younger generations are more likely to introduce positive changes when they move into leadership roles in the future.
The study emphasizes that addressing gender inequality requires awareness, education, and institutional policies that involve people from all age groups. Understanding generational differences can help organizations create more effective strategies to promote equality.
7. Healthcare Inequality
Betron et al. (2018) studied mistreatment of women during childbirth in healthcare facilities and how gender inequality impacts the experiences of maternity care in healthcare facilities. Although there have been improvements in reducing mistreatment during childbirth, many structural gender issues still persist.
Pregnant women often struggle to access information, make decisions, and feel confident enough to demand respectful care. Social norms can prevent women from questioning healthcare professionals or making independent choices about their health. Additionally, many healthcare workers providing maternity care are women facing poor working conditions, heavy workloads, discrimination, and limited opportunities for career growth.
The study says that merely focusing on medical quality or patient rights is insufficient to address this issue. Broader gender inequalities in society and the healthcare system must also be tackled. Improving conditions for healthcare workers and empowering women as patients can help reduce mistreatment and enhance maternal health outcomes.
8. Political Participation
Guglielmi et al. (2025) studied how gender, ethnicity, and social background influence political participation among young people in Italy. The researchers found that family discussions, school environments, and peer groups play important roles in shaping political awareness and involvement.
Young women often encounter barriers like stereotypes, a lack of confidence, limited opportunities, and social expectations that discourage political engagement. These challenges are more pronounced for young women from migrant or minority backgrounds, who may face multiple forms of discrimination.
Despite these obstacles, some young people display resilience and participate actively in political activities, including protests and online campaigns. The study suggests that schools, communities, and inclusive policies can encourage greater political participation among young women and help reduce inequalities in representation.
9. Marriage Patterns
Chang et al. (2025) study analyzes women’s marriage choices in China, focusing on instances where women marry men with lower education levels. The research shows that this trend has increased over time, particularly among highly educated women.
Factors such as income levels, parental education, childhood background, and urban or rural residence influence marriage decisions. Rural women are more likely to partner with less-educated men due to limited options in local marriage markets and historical gender gaps in education.
The study highlights how social, cultural, and economic changes shape marriage patterns and gender roles. It also illustrates how education levels influence relationship dynamics and family structures in modern society.
10. Family Dynamics
Crossley et al. (2026) studied how gender equality within families affects children’s education, mental health, and overall quality of life in Brazil. The researchers found that children raised in households with more equal roles between parents tend to perform better academically and face lower risks of depression.
The study challenges the notion that gender inequality only harms women. It shows that strict gender roles can negatively impact both boys and girls by limiting emotional development, opportunities, and expectations. Fostering equality at home can lead to healthier family environments and better developmental outcomes for children.
The research suggests that promoting gender equality is especially crucial in lower-income households, where unequal roles can create additional stress and disadvantages for children.
Conclusion
All the study tells that gender inequality is a complex issue affecting many areas of society, including economic growth, healthcare, education, employment, politics, family life, and social development. The research consistently indicates that reducing gender inequality leads to positive outcomes, such as improved economic performance, better health systems, stronger educational achievements, and healthier family environments.
Another important point is that gender inequality does not affect only women; it can also negatively impact men, children, and entire communities. Many studies also highlight that social norms, cultural beliefs, and economic conditions play a major role in creating inequality.
Overall, the research suggests that governments, institutions, and families should work together to promote gender equality. Policies, education, awareness, and equal opportunities are essential to create a fairer and developed society.
References
Algul, Y., 2024, Assessing the relationship between broad gender inequality and the gender unemployment gap: Insights from an extensive global macroeconometric panel analysis, Discover Sustainability v. 5(1), 422.
Babovic, M., 2018, Gender and economic inequalities: Trends in feminist economics and sociology at the centre and semi-periphery of the global knowledge production system, Sociologija v. 60(1), p. 1–34.
Betron, M. L., McClair, T. L., Currie, S., and Banerjee, J., 2018, Expanding the agenda for addressing mistreatment in maternity care: A mapping review and gender analysis, Reproductive Health v. 15(1).
Castillo, W. I. G., Wu, C. S., and Osei-Kusi, F., 2025, Human capital, income inequality, and health: Analysing heterogeneous dynamics across income groups, Asia&the Pacific Policy Studies v. 12(2).
Chang, Q., Wu, P., Wang, S., and Zhang, M., 2025, Exploring educational hypogamy among women in urban and rural China: Insights from random forest machine learning, PLoS One v. 20(9).
Crossley, N. A., Czepielewski, L., Menezes, A. M. B., Wehrmeister, F., and Gama, C. S., 2026, Parental gender inequality and their children’s educational attainment, quality of life and mental health: An analysis from the Pelotas 1993 birth cohort in Brazil, Cambridge Prisms: Global Mental Health v. 13, 9.
Foláyan, M. O., Obiyan, M., Lusher, J., Gascón-Catalán, A., and Martínez-Pérez, G. Z., 2025, Gender and generational differences in perspective about gender inequality in medical and dental research institutions in Nigeria, Discover Social Science and Health v. 5(1), 129.
Guglielmi, S., Riniolo, V., Maggini, N., Visioli, M., and Sanarico, A., 2025, “The girl must stay quiet”: Marginalisation of young women in political spaces and the impact of gender socialization and ethnic background, Società Mutamento Politica v. 16(31), p. 59–74.
Kularathne, S., Perera, A., Rathnayake, N., Rathnayake, U., and Hoshino, Y., 2024, Analyzing the impact of socioeconomic indicators on gender inequality in Sri Lanka: A machine learning-based approach, PLoS One v. 19(12).
Valero-Ancco, V., Fredy, S. G., Lujano-Ortega, Y., and Calderón-Quino, K. M., 2025, Global trends in gender inequality in higher education: A bibliometric analysis (1993–2024), Educational Process: International Journal v. 14.