GENDER INEQUALITY
Suraj Arekar
Gender Inequality and Trade: Impact on Comparative Advantage and Policy Implications”
The paper “Gender Inequality and Trade” by Matthias Busseand Christian Spielmann empirically examines the relationship between gender inequality and trade flows across 92 developed and developing countries. It finds that countries with higher gender wage inequality tend to have a comparative advantage in labor-intensive manufactured goods, leading to increased exports in these sectors. Conversely, gender inequality in labor force participation and educational attainment is negatively associated with comparative advantage in labor-intensive commodities. The study suggests that while gender wage gaps may contribute to export competitiveness, they raise concerns about laborstandards and economic fairness. The authors discuss policy implications, highlighting the inefficacy of trade sanctions and advocating for enhanced international monitoring and technical assistance to address gender disparities. provide title to this text in one line.( Busse, Matthias & Spielmann, Christian, 2004.)
Gender Inequalities: Progress and Challenges
The paper “Gender Inequalities: Progress and Challenges” by Romane Frecheville-Faucon, Magali Jaoul-Grammare, and Faustine Perrin provides an extensive analysis of gender inequality in the 20th and 21st centuries, focusing on historical contexts, education, labor market disparities, and policy measures. It highlights progress made through legal frameworks and policies while acknowledging persistent inequalities, particularly in employment, wage gaps, and domestic responsibilities. The study explores the impact of economic crises on gender inequality and assesses the effectiveness of welfare state policies in promoting women’s economic independence. While significant strides have been made, challenges remain, necessitating sustained policy efforts to foster a more inclusive and equitable society.(Romane Frecheville-Faucon et al 2023.)
Gender Inequality and Economic Growth in Turkey
The study by Cetin Oska examines the relationship between gender inequality and economic growth in Turkey, utilizing a desk research methodology based on secondary data. It finds that gender inequality, particularly in employment, education, and access to resources, hampers economic growth by limiting productivity and innovation. Conversely, reducing gender disparities can lead to significant economic benefits, including higher labor participation, increased social cohesion, and poverty reduction. The study emphasizes the need for policies that promote women’s empowerment, enforce gender equality laws, and create an inclusive economic environment. Theoretical perspectives such as human capital theory, gendered institutions theory, and feminist economics provide a framework for understanding these dynamics, reinforcing the argument that gender equality is crucial for sustainable economic development.( Cetin Oska, 2024.)
Gender Inequality and the Job Satisfaction Paradox in Europe
The study by Marko Vladisavljević and Cristiano Peruginiexplores the paradox that, despite experiencing lower wages, poorer working conditions, and workplace discrimination, women in Europe often report higher or similar levels of job satisfaction compared to men. Using data from the 2013 EU-SILC survey across 32 European countries, the study finds that this paradox is largely driven by women’s lower job expectations, shaped by historical exposure to gender inequality. Women raised in more gender-equal societies tend to have job satisfaction levels more aligned with men, suggesting that increased gender equality leads to rising expectations. Employment in male-dominated occupations also reduces the job satisfaction gap by further aligning women’s expectations with those of men. The findings highlight the long-term impact of early-life gender equality exposure on shaping job satisfaction and workplace expectations.( Vladisavljević, Marko & Perugini, Cristiano, 2018.)
Gender Inequality in Education: Impact on Economic Growth and Development
Ghulam Moheyuddin’s paper explores the causes and consequences of gender inequality in education, analyzing its effects on income, economic growth, and development. The study finds that gender disparities in education stem from social, cultural, and religious factors, as well as economic inefficiencies. It argues that lower investment in girls’ education is not an optimal economic choice, as evidence suggests that higher female education levels lead to increased economic growth, lower fertility rates, and improved health outcomes. The paper highlights that gender inequality in education limits human capital potential, reducing national productivity and slowing development. Policies promoting gender equity in education are presented as “win-win” strategies that enhance both economic prosperity and social well-being.( Moheyuddin, Ghulam, 2005)
The Impact of Educational and Gender Inequality on Income Inequality in South Asia
The study by Ayesha Kanwal and Kashif Munir analyzes how educational and gender inequality affect income inequality in South Asian countries from 1980 to 2010. Using panel data techniques, the study finds that higher educational inequality correlates with increased income disparity, reinforcing the importance of equal education distribution. Gender inequality at primary and tertiary education levels has a significant negative impact on per capita income, while secondary education shows a positive effect. The study confirms the existence of a Kuznets curve in education, indicating that inequality initially declines with increasing education levels but eventually rises again. The findings emphasize the need for policies promoting equal access to education, particularly for women, to reduce income inequality and foster economic development in the region.( Kanwal, Ayesha & Munir, Kashif, 2015)
Gender Quotas and Inequality in Corporate Boardrooms
The study by Antoine Rebérioux and Gwenael Roudautexamines the impact of gender quotas on corporate boardrooms, focusing on the 2011 French gender quota law for listed companies. While the quota increased female representation on boards, it did not eliminate gender inequality within them. Women appointed post-quota were less likely to hold key leadership positions in audit, compensation, and nominating committees, resulting in a widening gender pay gap—from 3.3% pre-quota to 5.5% post-quota. The study highlights the persistence of a “second glass ceiling” where women, despite being present in boardrooms, face barriers to influential roles, affecting corporate governance and decision-making power.( Antoine Rebérioux& Gwenael Roudaut, 2017.)
Revisiting the Ancient Origins of Gender Inequality
The study by Trung V. Vu examines the long-term impact of traditional plough use on contemporary gender roles, building on the findings of Alesina, Giuliano, and Nunn (2013). The research confirms that societies with ancestral plough adoption exhibit persistent gender-biased norms, leading to lower female labor force participation and empowerment. The study finds that these biases are culturally transmitted across generations through oral traditions, reinforcing gender inequality. However, societies with ancestors exposed to unstable climatic conditions between 500-1900 CE show weaker intergenerational transmission of these norms. The study highlights the deep historical roots of gender inequality and emphasizes the need for policy interventions to address these persistent cultural biases.( Trung V. Vu, 2025)
Culture, Children, and Couple Gender Inequality
The study by Jonas Jessen explores the impact of cultural norms on within-couple gender inequality, focusing on the effects of children on labor market participation and household responsibilities in Germany. By comparing East and West German couples—socialized in distinct gender cultures due to Germany’s historical division—the study finds that West German women experience a significantly larger “child penalty” in earnings and labor force participation than their East German counterparts. Additionally, West German women take on a greater share of household and childcare responsibilities after childbirth. The research highlights how cultural upbringing and institutional policies influence gender roles within families, emphasizing that exposure to more egalitarian norms leads to a more balanced distribution of labor and income within couples.( Monica Bozzano, 2012)
Assessing Gender Inequality Among Italian Regions: The Italian Gender Gap Index
The study by Monica Bozzano explores gender inequality across Italian regions by developing the Italian Gender Gap Index (IGGI), based on the methodology of the Global Gender Gap Index (GGGI). The research highlights stark regional disparities, with Northern regions exhibiting greater gender equality than Southern regions. The IGGI evaluates four key dimensions: health and survival, educational attainment, economic participation, and political empowerment. While education and health gaps are largely closed, economic and political inequalities remain significant. The study finds a strong correlation between gender equality and economic competitiveness, income levels, and social progress. The findings emphasize the need for policies that address gender disparities at the regional level to promote equitable economic and social development in Italy.( Jessen, Jonas, 2022)
Gender Inequality Across Economies: Impacts, Trends, and Policy Challenges”
The studies collectively examine various dimensions of gender inequality and its economic, social, and policy implications across different regions and sectors. Busse and Spielmann highlight how gender wage gaps influence trade competitiveness, while Frecheville-Faucon et al. assess historical progress and persistent disparities in gender equality. Oska’s research on Turkey links gender inequality to economic stagnation, and Vladisavljević and Perugini explore the paradox of women’s job satisfaction despite workplace disadvantages. Moheyuddin underscores the economic benefits of gender-equal education, while Kanwal and Munir examine its role in reducing income inequality in South Asia. Rebérioux and Roudaut find that gender quotas increase boardroom representation but fail to eliminate leadership disparities. Vu traces gender inequality to ancestral plough use, Jessen examines cultural impacts on household gender roles in Germany, and Bozzano highlights regional gender gaps in Italy. The overarching theme is that gender inequality remains deeply rooted and affects economic growth, labormarkets, education, and governance, necessitating targeted policy interventions. provide title to this paragraph
Reference:-
Busse, Matthias & Spielmann, Christian, 2004. “Gender Inequality and Trade,” HWWA Discussion Papers 308, Hamburg Institute of International Economics (HWWA)
Romane Frecheville-Faucon & Magali Jaoul-Grammare& Faustine Perrin, 2023. “Gender Inequalities: Progress and Challenges,” Working Papers of BETA 2023-32, Bureau d’Economie Théorique et Appliquée, UDS, Strasbourg.
Cetin Oska, 2024. “Gender Inequality and Economic Growth in Turkey,” Journal of Developing Economies, AJPO Journals Limited, vol. 6(2), pages 13-23.
Vladisavljević, Marko & Perugini, Cristiano, 2018. “Gender inequality and the gender job satisfaction paradox in Europe,” CEI Working Paper Series 2017-9, Center for Economic Institutions, Institute of Economic Research, Hitotsubashi University.
Moheyuddin, Ghulam, 2005. “Gender Inequality in Education: Impact on Income, Growth and Development,” MPRA Paper 685, University Library of Munich, Germany.
Kanwal, Ayesha & Munir, Kashif, 2015. “The Impact of Educational and Gender Inequality on Income Inequality in South Asia,” MPRA Paper 66661, University Library of Munich, Germany
Antoine Rebérioux & Gwenael Roudaut, 2017. “Gender Quota and Inequalities inside the Boardroom,” Working Papers hal-01618949, HAL.
Trung V. Vu, 2025. “Revisiting the Ancient Origins of Gender Inequality,” CAMA Working Papers 2025-11, Centre for Applied Macroeconomic Analysis, Crawford School of Public Policy, The Australian National University.
Monica Bozzano, 2012. “Assessing Gender Inequality among Italian Regions: The Italian Gender Gap Index,” Quaderni di Dipartimento 174, University of Pavia, Department of Economics and Quantitative Methods.
Jessen, Jonas, 2022. “Culture, children and couple gender inequality,” European Economic Review, Elsevier, vol. 150(C).