“Challenges and Evolution of German Collective Bargaining”
ARNHOLTZ, (2013) The discourse surrounding German collective bargaining reflects a nuanced understanding of its historical evolution and contemporary challenges. While traditionally lauded for its industry-wide multi-employer agreements fostering wage equality and labour peace, recent trends suggest a departure from this model. Factors such as declining union membership and coverage of collective agreements raise doubts about the system’s resilience. Scholars like Bahrein offer insights into the inner workings of employer associations and their role in shaping collective bargaining dynamics. The erosion of bargaining-free membership status among these associations presents a notable concern, potentially limiting the extension of collective agreements across industries. Moreover, broader European austerity policies since 2009 have intensified pressures for privatization and reforms in industrial relations, with governments emphasizing debt reduction and job creation in the private sector. This complex interplay between economic policies, institutional arrangements, and societal demands underscores the ongoing debate surrounding the future trajectory of German collective bargaining and its implications for social reform.
Short-term migration in rural India
CHANDRASEKHAR, et al, (2015) The writer talks about economic surveys for India in 2012 and 2030 highlighting significant challenges in job creation, notably in agriculture and manufacturing, with millions of jobs lost over the years. Short-term migration driven by rural distress and lack of opportunities complicates labour force dynamics. A slow decline in agricultural employment and farmers’ dissatisfaction exacerbate the situation. Seasonal migration, termed distress diversification, has scaled up, contributing to urbanization challenges like poverty and unaffordable living conditions. The government’s Bharat Jurma Program aims to address rural infrastructure needs. Overall, the analysis underscores the complex interplay of socio-economic factors shaping employment and migration patterns in India, emphasizing the need for comprehensive strategies to address rural distress and promote sustainable employment opportunities.
The data indicates a pressing need for comprehensive strategies to address the challenges facing India’s job market, particularly in agriculture and manufacturing. The significant loss of jobs in these sectors, coupled with rural distress and seasonal migration, underscores the urgency for targeted interventions. Efforts to improve rural infrastructure, such as the Bharat Jurma Program, are steps in the right direction but require further support and expansion. Additionally, there is a need to address the root causes of farmers’ dissatisfaction and explore ways to create sustainable employment opportunities in both rural and urban areas. Overall, addressing these challenges is crucial for fostering inclusive growth and improving the well-being of households across India.
“Migration, Ideas, and Economic Policy Evolution in India”
KAPUR, (2004) India’s economic policies have shifted recently due to a mix of reasons. These include past economic crises, changes in global politics and ideas, and pressure from international financial institutions and domestic interests. One key aspect is how international migration and ideas from Indian intellectuals and entrepreneurs impact policy decisions. This migration can affect both the country migrants leave and where they go. For example, China’s opening up in the late 1970s allowed its diaspora to contribute more. The political climate in migrants’ home countries also matters as it influences why people leave. Ideas, including technologies and beliefs, play a big role too. They shape policies, especially in democracies, as politicians must balance what’s politically acceptable with what works. Migration also leads to brain gain when people return home with new skills and ideas. India’s pre-independence elite already had exposure abroad, through education and work, setting a precedent for today’s globalized world. Overall, these factors show how interconnected the world is and how it influences economic policies.
Declining Female Labour Force Participation Rates (FLFPR) In India
KHAN, BARUAH, (2021) The data indicates that in India, there’s a decline in women working, especially in rural areas. This could be due to men leaving their villages to work elsewhere, leaving women with more household responsibilities. Additionally, the money sent back home by these men affects how women participate in the job market. The study uses a survey called the Employment, Unemployment and Migration survey of the 64th round of the National Sample Survey to understand how this migration and money impacts the type of work women do. They categorize workers into those who work for themselves and those who work for others, to see how migration influences both formal and informal employment in rural India. This data highlights the complex relationship between migration, remittances, and women’s participation in the labour market, shedding light on factors influencing the female labour force participation rate in India, particularly in rural areas.
Temporary Migration and Financial Risk of labours
MORTEN, (2019) This study delves into how rural Indian households cope with fluctuating incomes by temporarily sending family members to work in cities. Approximately 20% of these households engage in this practice, with the income earned from such temporary migration constituting a substantial portion—around half—of their total earnings. By focusing on the phenomenon of temporary migration, lasting about six months, the research sheds light on how it impacts the informal mechanisms these households use to share financial risks among themselves. The analysis incorporates factors like limited commitment, friction, and the dynamic nature of migration decisions within a broader framework. By exploring this interaction between risk-sharing strategies and temporary migration, the study contributes to a better understanding of household economic behaviour in rural India and the role migration plays in mitigating income volatility.
Ultimately, this study provides valuable insights that can inform policymakers and practitioners seeking to design interventions aimed at improving the resilience and well-being of rural communities in the face of economic uncertainties.
Spatial risk pattern and the gains from marriage migration.
MUELLER, SHARIFF, (2011) The data delves into migration dynamics in low-income countries, with a particular focus on women migrating for marriage in rural India. It suggests that households experiencing more variable profits tend to engage in longer-distance marriage-cum-migration, challenging traditional models of marriage and migration. While many studies emphasize rural-to-urban migration driven by economic incentives, in India, such migration plays a lesser role in the overall migration landscape. Specifically, rural-to-urban migration contributes less than 90% to the growth of India’s urban population between 1971 and 1981. This underscores the complexity of migration patterns, highlighting the significant role of marriage-related migration alongside economic factors. The findings shed light on the diverse motivations behind migration in low-income countries and the need to consider socio-cultural factors alongside economic drivers. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for developing effective policies and interventions that address the multifaceted nature of migration and its impact on communities and economies.
Rural-urban wage gap
MUNSHI, ROSENZWEIG, (2016) write, about rural-urban wage disparity and labour immobility prevalent in India, shedding light on various contributing factors. It points to the absence of formal insurance mechanisms and limited mobility due to information and enforcement challenges as key reasons behind this phenomenon. Additionally, the increasing trend of seasonal temporary migration is noted, suggesting a partial response to labour market dynamics. The discussion also highlights the role of rural caste networks in providing informal insurance, which partly compensates for the lack of formal safety nets.
Addressing these issues is deemed crucial for improving productivity and income distribution across regions in India. Policy interventions are proposed to facilitate labour mobility, reduce spatial disparities, and enhance economic efficiency. By tackling the root causes of the rural-urban wage gap and promoting greater mobility, policymakers can create a more equitable and dynamic labour market. Ultimately, such measures aim to foster inclusive growth and development, ensuring that the benefits of economic progress are more evenly distributed among India’s diverse population.
Impact of migration on women.
NARAYAN, KANKANHALLI (2021) In his research study, focused on India having one of the lowest female labour force participation rates (FLFPR) in South Asia. The progressive decline in the FLFPR in rural areas has been highlighted and analysed extensively in the existing literature. Labour migration has increased in recent years, especially among men migrating from rural to urban areas and from urban to urban areas. this article focuses on how migration and remittances can explicitly affect the participation of women in the labour market. We argue that the absence of jobs in rural areas triggers migration to urban or rural areas. The women take responsibility for the household in the absence of male members. In this article, one-third of the households in rural India reported the outmigration of a member and one-fifth of the rural household’s outmigration for work-related reasons. India has the second largest migration in the world after China. The outmigration of one or more family members affects households in two closely related ways.
India and its internal migration
ROSENZWEIG, STARK, (1989) Highlight the data examines India’s increasing migration rate from 27.4% in 1991 to 30% in 2001, with remittances from internal migrants correlated to teen schooling, labour supply decisions, and household income. Remittances potentially alleviate liquidity constraints, fostering human capital accumulation and poverty reduction. Migration and remittances also drive investment in housing, consumables, and landholdings, contributing to economic growth. The findings suggest a link between migration, remittances, and increased household income, with potential reductions in overall labour efforts and child labour due to improved human capital investment and access to credit markets.
Overall, the data underscores the multifaceted impact of migration and remittances on India’s socio-economic landscape, highlighting the potential for these phenomena to drive both individual and household-level prosperity while also fuelling broader economic growth.
Migration and inequality dynamics in India
VAKULABHARANAM, THAKURATA, (2014) Migration has emerged as a pivotal factor driving India’s economic growth since the 1980s, challenging the common perception of migrants as predominantly poor. Despite disparities, migrants often outperform non-migrants across various socio-economic strata. This paradox can be elucidated by examining the intricate relationship between migration and inequality within the context of India’s growth trajectory since the 1990s. India’s growth, marked by strictness and inequality, has shaped migration patterns and outcomes. Multiple factors contribute to the phenomenon of migration-driven economic advancement. Access to better healthcare, education, and opportunities are primary motivators for individuals to relocate. Additionally, the prevalence of untouchability, though unfortunate, serves as a significant driver of migration, compelling marginalized communities to seek better prospects elsewhere. The literature in India reflects efforts to connect migration with disparities, highlighting the nuanced interplay between migration dynamics and socio-economic inequality. Understanding this relationship is crucial for comprehending the dynamics of India’s economic growth and social development.
migration plays a multifaceted role in India’s economic landscape, driving growth and challenging conventional notions of poverty and mobility. By examining the interconnected processes of migration and inequality, we can gain insights into the mechanisms shaping India’s socio-economic fabric and formulate more inclusive policies for the future.
Conclusion:
Today labour migration is a major problem in India. The interconnectedness of migration, remittances, and socio-economic dynamics in India presents both challenges and opportunities for the nation’s development. From influencing educational investments and household incomes to affecting women’s labour force participation and addressing rural distress, migration emerges as a complex yet pivotal component of India’s economic landscape. Additionally, the nuanced relationship between migration patterns, such as temporary and marriage-related moves, and their impact on rural economies and gender disparities highlights the need for targeted policy interventions. Understanding these multifaceted phenomena is crucial for crafting inclusive strategies that leverage migration’s potential benefits while mitigating its adverse effects, ultimately contributing to India’s pursuit of sustainable growth and equitable development.
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