child Labour

CHILD LABOUR 

Author Name :- Azhar Abutalib Shaikh  

1.COMPULSORY SCHOOLING LAWS AND THE CURE FOR CHILD LABOUR   

Giorgio Bellettini and Carlotta Berti Ceroni, states child labour  which relies on the imperfect enforcement of compulsory schooling laws. It is the effect of compulsory schooling legislation (CSL) on child labour and school attendance is still an open question. The causes of child labour in developing countries are widely recognized that the lack of enforcement mechanisms is a major obstacle to its elimination. Enforcement problems are particularly severe in the informal sector, away from cities and in agriculture, in domestic service and home-based work and most children work in these sectors, most of  the people work where legislation on education and child labour can be virtually absent and the weakness of enforcement mechanisms against child labour include the lack of transportation which makes it very difficult to monitor establishments in rural areas, complexity and gaps in the law, inadequacy of penalties and uncertainty competent authority.   The model of an economy with heterogenous agents where the rationale for public intervention through compulsory schooling legislation is the presence of complementarities which affect the choice between education and child labour. I assume that, for each household, the net benefit of sending children to school rather than to work is increasing with the number of children who simultaneously attend school. Further is explained in different sections. Section II sets out the model children may either go to school or work (child labour). Labour income earned by children (normalized to one) is added to family income and used for family consumption. In Section III I introduce the definition of equilibrium, show the conditions under which multiple equilibria emerge and characterize these equilibria. Section IV develops the welfare analysis and Section V concludes. 

2. Re-thinking ‘harm’ in relation to children’s work: a ‘situated,’ multi-disciplinary perspective

Roy Maconachie, Neil Howard and Rosilin Bock explain that The United Nations calls for the elimination of child labour by 2030, and its ‘worst forms’ by 2025. Implicit is the idea that children’s work is harmful, yet no coherent theory of harm exists within the child labour field. Harm and child labour: institutional definitions and their discontents define child labour as work that is “mentally, physically, socially or morally dangerous and harmful to children and/or interferes with their schooling. Anthropological and sociological perspectives on harm Within anthropological and sociological critiques of mainstream approaches to child labour and the ‘harm’ at the heart of it, there sits a well-grounded, widespread assessment that work can be, and often is, beneficial for children work. They are following different ways to contribute to children’s wellbeing. The view from human geography makes a valuable contribution to understanding harm in children’s work A common theme concerns the need for situated analysis that poses questions about the spatial patterns and impacts of economic development across various scales. Locating knowledge and practice about children’s work in time and space also underscores the geographically and culturally specific nature of what may or may not be considered harmful. The economic contribution of children’s work is mentioned, and Developmental psychology has made important contributions to research on children’s work and harm. The health academic and institutional literature on health and child labour, harm is most often understood in relation to injury or illness. The WHO definition of ‘child health,’ on the other hand, encompasses the complete physical, mental and social wellbeing of a child and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. 

3. 3. ADOLESCENT WORKERS IN THIRD WORLD EXPORT INDUSTRIES: ATTITUDES OF YOUNG BRAZILIAN SHOEMAKERS
4. LAWRENCE FRENCH states that Child labor is widely condemned, but recently there have been calls to distinguish between acceptable and harmful work for adolescents. This study, based on data gathered in 1998 in Brazil’s export-oriented shoe industry and in the local commercial sector, focuses on adolescents’ attitudes toward work in global industries, family businesses, and self-directed jobs. Among young workers employed in firms, those in the shoe industry viewed their work less favorably than those in commerce; however, no differences were found between shoe and commercial workers employed by their families. A second finding is that within the shoe industry, which was contracting, family workers had more positive attitudes than did firm employees, but within the expanding commercial sector the opposite was true. Finally, there is evidence that self-directed jobs, in which employees themselves largely determine how to perform specific  tasks were associated with positive attitudes. Industry, Employer, and Job Contexts of Adolescent Work Modernization theorists and conflict theorists dispute the consequences for developing areas of penetration by global industries (1990). Cross-national research on young workers in global industries has been rare and inconclusive (1992). conflict theorists point to the presence of many poor, young workers in global industries and attribute their employment to firms’ efforts to lower their costs in response to market pressures (1994). research on young women working for multinationals in developing areas (1995). Studies suggest that these firms often recruit single, female adolescents who work cheaply and defer to male authority 1998. Other employee’s adolescents are affected not only by the industry in which they work, but also by the characteristics of the organizations that employ them. Adolescent workers in slower-moving family enterprises may view their families as obstacles to mobility and may have more negative attitudes toward their work than do those in firms. The effects of industries may also depend on the jobs individuals hold. The coordinated jobs are apart to be similar across industries, as job constraints limit the relevance of the broader context. Within the shoe industry, manufacturers’ efforts to gain more flexibility have increasingly involved subcontracting to small shops. These shops often are subject to unrelenting pressures for low piece rate turnarounds, better quality, and less waste pressures that can escalate to threats of replacement. They used different methods and statistical data for analyzing it and A) Descriptive Statistics B) OLS Regressions of Work Satisfaction C) OLS Regressions of Work Contribution D) OLS Regressions of Work Contribution E) OLS Regressions within Shoes and Commerce/Services. 
5. Child Labour in American Imports

BABAN HASNAT explains that provide an econometric examination of the relationship between imports and child labour. The paper fills this gap by presenting a probit model and testing for American imports in 1990 from a broad group of 92 countries. Regression results of various versions of basic model reveal that the equations are all highly significant and predict at least 80% of the observations correctly, that the signs are generally as expected, and the variables are significant at the accepted level in most cases. I fail to find support for the perception that US imports significantly increase the likelihood of a child labour problem abroad. Previous studies on the child labour and trade perhaps the only econometric study linking child labour and trade, relies on the dependency theory to examine the extent to which the world system encourages child labour in developing countries (1) child labour and dependency and (2) child labour and multinational   corporations’ penetration into a country. The model and the data are the demand for child labour in export industries arises mainly from cost considerations. Since education is not an option for the poor families that have migrated to urban areas recently, children of unemployed families go out to work, and some end up in the export sectors. The relationship between trade and international labour standard (which includes child labour) is an important topic for future research The data has been prepared and it includes Probit estimates of child labour in US Imports, 1990, Exports to the USA, Urbanization, GDP, Human development index, Literacy rate. 

5. The impact of trade liberalization on child labor in Pakistan

Jabbar Ul-Haq, Sana Khanum and Ahmed Raza Cheema state that many less-developed economies in the 1980s and early 1990s cut tariffs and non-tariff barriers drastically and exposed their countries to foreign competition. Whereas openness to trade was welcomed as it was considered as a major contributor to efficiency and economic growth, most of these economies were worried about the fact that openness to trade might contribute to enhancing the gap between high and low-income groups thus increasing income inequality (2019) .The trade liberalization generates economic benefits for developing countries , it has a negative consequence on human capital that acts as an engine for long term economic development. On one hand, trade liberalization for unskilled and cheap labor may generate employment opportunities, and labor force participation of children may have a negative consequence on education and well-being and abolish their future wages, and human capital accumulation and on the other hand, trade liberalization could enhance household income and reduce children’s labor force participation rate. Theoretical frameworks help to predict trade theory that product market integration disturbs local labor markets through variations in relative commodity prices.  Data of Trade policy of Pakistan, Child labor in Pakistan National household survey, Methodology, Results and discussion on Baseline results, Robustness checks, Lagged-trade policy and child labor analysis, has been explained. 

6. A THEORY OF THE WORST FORMS OF CHILD LABOUR

Sylvain E. Dessy and Stephane Pallage explain that Child labour is as old as mankind. In the second half of the twentieth century, an international consensus developed on the elimination of the practice based upon the desire to protect children and Favour their mental and cognitive development. Echoing this consensus, in 1973, the International Labour Organization (ILO) designed a convention establishing at fifteen years the minimum age for admission to employment. The current policy discussions of child labour, the emphasis has now shifted towards the worst forms of child labour – those that expose children to physical and psychological stress, like drug-trafficking, deep-sea fishing, prostitution and pornographic activities. Policy is yet again ahead of research and authors emphasize the case where parents have incomplete information on the type of work (hazardous or non-hazardous) in which their child is involved. Critics of our theory might point at victimization as the reason why, in developing countries, many girls are found in brothels, escort agencies, or pornographic industries, while many boys are involved in military activities, drug-trafficking, underground mining, and deep-sea fishing. slavery and bonded child labour is an important problem. 1 a) Modelling the Worst Forms of Child Labour b) Human Capital Accumulation Technology c) Parental Decision Problem. 2. Equilibrium Child Labour Profile a) Equilibrium Allocation of Children Workers 3. Welfare Effects of a Ban a) No Externality b) The Externality Scenario: A Numerical Analysis 4. Discussion and Conclusion. 

7. Child Labor in the Global Economy

Eric V. Edmonds and Nina Pavcnik state that the high-income countries that child labor in developing countries is nearly always a form of child abuse, in which children work in hazardous conditions in run-down factories for callous businesses. The recent attempts to combat child labour by lowering employment opportunities lor children through harmonized international child labour standards and by consumer boycotts of products produced by child laborers. What is Child Labor?  The number of children working around the world is a difficult task. Most working children live in low-income countries. These countries often lack reliable data on many aspects of their labor market. Even more difficult, some policymakers have until recently defined “child labor” as economic activities that are deleterious to the well-being of children. Here are some situations where it is hard to imagine how an activity could not be harmful to the child—forced prostitution, child soldiers—but as we will discuss, these activities are very rare. Survey Evidence on Child Labor.  The ILO’s Statistical information and Monitoring Program in Child Labor (SIMPOC) most recently estimated that 211 million children, or 18 percent of children 5-14, are economically active worldwide (ILO). A child is defined as economically active if he or she works for wages (cash or in-kind). Who Employs Children? popular perception in high-income countries, most working children are employed by their parents rather than in manufacturing establishments or other forms of wage employment. In 2000 and 2001. UNICEF coordinated detailed household surveys with virtually identical questionnaires in 36 low-income countries tries as a part of UNICEF’s End of Decade Assessment. Allocating Time between Work and School, Hazardous Forms of Child Labor, Economic Conditions and Policies that Affect Child Labour, the Role of Living Standards, Credit Market Imperfections and Education Reform and Policy Implications methods and techniques has been used in the research. 

8. The causal effect of the number of children on gender-specific labour supply elasticities to the firm

Céline Detilleux, et all states that the effect of the number of children on the female and the male wage elasticities of labour supply to the firm using instrumental variables estimation in data from the US Current Population Survey (2000–19). I find that the male wage elasticity of labour supply to the firm significantly increases with the number of children, while the female elasticity is not significantly altered. That is, I find evidence that male labour markets become more competitive with the arrival of children. The effect of parenthood has been extensively investigated in the literature, and there is clear evidence that children and family obligations have a substantial impact on the labour market outcomes of men and women.  Monopsony in the strict sense means that there is only one employer in the labour market, so it would be more accurate to define a market with multiple employers as an ‘oligopsony’ or ‘monopsonistic competition. It has been seen that female labour supply to the firm is less elastic than that of men.  Instrument validity: sex composition and the total number of children, the effect of fertility on male and female wage elasticities to the firm and the effect among breadwinners and low-skilled workers. It exploits the fertility consequences of sibling sex composition contradict the standard estimates that do not control for endogeneity that falsely suggest children increase male and female separation rates. The effect reduces drastically and even turns negative. The standard estimates appear to exaggerate the causal effect of children, and this suggests that the relation between the number of children and separation rates is affected by confounder variables. The fact that male labour markets become more competitive as the number of children increases could be related to the different roles men and women continue to assume in the family. The traditional role division in the family was often summarised by stating that children cost time and money and that mothers provide the time and fathers the money. 

9. ILLEGAL CHILD LABOR IN THE UNITED STATES: PREVALENCE AND CHARACTERISTICS

DOUGLAS L. KRUSE and DOUGLAS MAHONY state that whether and how children should be employed has long been subject to competing views. Some have argued that child labor can enhance skill development and socialization in the world of work, and steer children away from delinquency. Concerns about exploitation of children led to the development of child labor laws in the early 1900s, culminating at the federal level in provisions of the 1938 Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA). Federal and state laws currently restrict both the hours that children may work and the occupations and industries in which they may be employed. To begin exploration of the important issues raised by illegal child labor, in this paper we present new estimates of how many children in the United States are employed in violation of child labor laws, the characteristics of those so employed, the types of jobs they hold, and the trends and determinants of illegal child labor over the past three decades. The focus is on developing the best possible estimates of levels, trends, and characteristics of illegal child labor, providing the basis and rationale for research that further explore. Laws and Research on Child Labour. Child labor in nonagricultural industries was first regulated by provisions of the FLSA, enacted in 1938 and amended several times This legislation emerged after earlier federal laws were struck down by the Supreme Courtin 1990. The Supreme Court (Pollack et al. 1990). In addition to the FLSA, there is a network of state legislation governing the employment of minors, and in cases of overlap the stricter of the two bodies of law always applies. While the hazardous occupation re- strictions apply to all employed youths, hours restrictions do not apply to those employed in a family business. The total number of illegally employed minors detected by the Department of Labor went from 9,243 in 1983 to 27,528 in 1991, but there is no reliable way to determine what share this represents of all illegally employed minors (CAO 1992). Regarding long-term effects, adolescent employment is linked to lower rates of high school and college completion and a greater number of hours worked in jobs more than 10 years later (Carr et al. 1996; Mihalic and Elliott 1997). Data Sources and Limitations and the main data source used in this study is the Current Population Survey (CPS), which currently asks employment questions for those age 15 and older. The standard monthly survey measures current employment, allowing estimates of the number illegally employed in an average week. Estimating Total Illegal Employment. In an average week during the period surveyed, 153,600 children and adolescents are estimated to have been working illegally in the United States, comprising 40,800 16- and 17-year-olds, 68,100 14- and 15-year-olds, and 44,700 children (about twice the seating capacity of Madison Square Garden) under age 14. Most of these youths—151,000—were working in nonagricultural employment, with 2,600 in agricultural employment. It is mentioned in Nonagricultural Employment for 14-17-Year-Olds, Nonagricultural Employment for Children Younger Than Age 14, Agricultural Employment, Sweatshop and Home-Based Work. Demographic and Job Characteristics, Cost Savings for Employers How much, if anything, do employment. 

10. Important Determinants of Child Labor: A Case Study for Lahore

AHMED F. SIDDIQI Explains that Child labor is a persistent problem both for developing and developed countries. Child labor has always been an emotive issue, the discussion about which is often charged with passion, sorrow, and embarrassment. Hundreds of millions of boys and girls throughout the world are engaged in work that deprives them of adequate education, health, leisure, and basic freedoms, violating their rights. Of these children, more than half are exposed to the worst forms of child labor such as work in hazardous environments, slavery or other forms of forced labor, and illicit activities such as drug trafficking and prostitution. Child labor is everywhere. In many Western countries the situation is different, and children may be remunerated for their work and are encouraged by their parents, and society, to work during their school vacations as a way toward making them independent and appreciative of the value of work and time. There is a great divide between these phenomena and the situation in which children in many developing countries, especially in Asia, are put to work as an undeniable source of family income instead of attending school and learning. A household-characteristics-based analysis, as far as literature suggests, discusses household poverty, household literacy level, and household demography. He establishes that the trend away from marriage accounted for almost half the increase in child income inequality and more than the entire rise in child poverty rates. The objective is to factorize household-based determinants to identify the most important factors for child labor, especially for Lahore. r. For example, in the same society one might expect different approaches to be pursued by household heads and child labor users, as has already been discussed in the literature review. The current study is an investigation for the most important variants in the dynamics of child labor in any society, in general, and for Lahore, in particular. The study is micro-level household-based research and does not discuss macro- or policy-level problems but may lead to policy-level recommendations. Poverty-driven factors are revealed to be the most important factors for child labor while household size and labor-related factors are numbers two and three, respectively. A factor model is proposed here in this study that focuses on household poverty, demography, and the literacy levels as the three most serious variants in the dynamics of child labor in any society, including so Lahore, but what is revealed is quite different. 

11. Conclusion 

Compulsory Schooling Laws: They are designed to ensure children attend school rather than engage in labor. They aim to improve literacy, reduce poverty, and protect children’s rights. 

 Cure for Child Labor: Education is often cited as the primary cure for child labor. When children have access to quality education, they are less likely to engage in labor-intensive work. 

Harm of Child Labor: Child labor can have severe physical, emotional, and psychological consequences on children, affecting their health, education, and overall well-being. 

Adolescent Workers in Third World Export Industries: Many industries in developing countries rely on adolescent labor due to cheap labor costs. This can perpetuate the cycle of poverty and limit educational opportunities  

Attributes of Young Brazilian Shoemakers: Factors such as poverty, lack of education, and limited job opportunities contribute to children entering the workforce, including the shoemaking industry in Brazil. 

Impact of Trade Liberalization: Trade liberalization can lead to increased demand for labor, including child labor, as industries seek to lower production costs to remain competitive in the global market. 

The Worst Forms of Child Labor: This refers to the most egregious forms of child labor, including slavery, trafficking, and hazardous work. Efforts to eradicate these forms of child labor are crucial.  

Child Labor in the Global Economy: Child labor is a complex issue intertwined with economic, social, and cultural factors. Global initiatives are needed to address its root causes and provide support to affected communities.  

Determinants of Child Labor: Poverty, lack of access to education, cultural norms, and weak enforcement of labor laws are among the important determinants of child labor. 

 Case Study of Lahore: Lahore, like many other urban centers, faces challenges related to child labor, including poverty, inadequate education, and limited job opportunities. Local interventions tailored to the specific context are necessary to address these issues effectively. 

 

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