Employment in various countries
Literature review-
1) Employment and manpower division-
Technical Note on Employment for the Eleventh Five Year Plan’ presents the quantitative basis for determining the targets and projections on employment, and the related variables given in the Eleventh Five Year Plan document. While, in principle, each Chapter of the Plan document has an ’employment dimension’, three Chapters of the Plan document that relate directly to this subject are: Employment Perspective and Labour Policy, Skill Development and Training, Social Security of Workers.
2) Carmen-
The paper analyses the impact of employment protection legislation for permanent and temporary workers on total employment, permanent and temporary employment. Using panel data techniques, we investigate whether the level and the changes in employment protection for permanent and temporary workers affect the dynamics of total salaried employment, permanent employment, and temporary employment. The results of this paper contribute to a better understanding of the determinants of the evolution of employment and of the determinants of the quality of employment.
3) Europe-
European countries have introduced labour market reforms that have affected affect the conditions to hire and fire permanent workers and the constraints to the use of temporary employment contracts. However, the empirical evidence clearly shows that a conclusion about the impact of labour market reforms on total employment cannot be reached. Indeed, recent empirical evidence, argues that a higher flexibility in the employment protection has a negative impact on employment. This implies that a higher labour flexibility is associated with a higher labour segmentation, characterized by a rising share of temporary workers but not with a higher total employment.
4) Self employment and wage employment-
The authors mainly find that: the migration experience has a significant positive impact on wage‐employment activities, but may be has a negative effect on the entrepreneurial activities. The workers engaged in non‐agricultural activities have the same characteristics in the labor market (i.e. younger, male, higher education levels, less average land and parents with little children) compared to the agricultural activities, but these characteristics show no significant affect on the occupation choice between self‐employment and wage‐employment. Research limitations/implications – This paper extends the empirical analysis in internal migration, but it also has some drawbacks, such as not enough data can be obtained to distinguish the occupations between different types of self‐employment as own account workers and as entrepreneurs. Second, they propose a more exact category for rural occupational choice including non‐agricultural activities and agricultural activities.
5) Spain-
The economic literature has identify two main features of spanish unemployment: it is very extremly high and it is persistent. The behaviour of regional unemployment rate presents even more critical situations. For example, Andalusia has an unemployment rate of more than 32%. In this context, the creation of employmnet in traditional economic sectors is not sufficient. New employment opportunities must be discovered and exploted. This paper presents a tentative approach to the identification of employment opportunities in social services with potential posibilities of employment. We present an approach to a macroscopic and strategic public policy.
6) Albania-
One of the most sensitive social problems of recent decades in Albania is high levels of emigration due to the unemployment and all measures that can be taken to increase the employment in the country are crucial. The country’s economic growth is a direct factor that influences the opening of new enterprises or even the expansion of current enterprises, thus increasing employment. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the impact of self-employment on employment. To achieve this purpose, is studied the relation between self-employment, economic growth and exports with the level of employment. The relation between employment as a dependent variable and self-employed people, GDP growth rate and export as independent variables is studied through a linear model. After the analysis using the least squares method, in this paper it is concluded that the self-employed have a significant positive relationship with the level of employment in the country.
7) Employer power-
The issue of employer power is underemphasized in the development literature. The default model is usually one of competitive labour markets. This assumption matters for analysis and policy prescription. There is growing evidence that the competitive labour markets assumption is not valid for employment in developing countries. Our objective in this paper is to review this evidence, to present theoretical and policy perspectives that follow from it, and to highlight areas for further research.
8) Employment consequences-
This article surveys the literature and adds to the evidence on the impact of employment protection legislation on employment. While stringent employment protection contributes to less turnover and job reallocation, the effects on aggregate employment and unemployment over the business cycle are more uncertain. Exploitation of partial reforms and the use of micro data in recent research appear not to have affected results regarding employment and unemployment in any systematic way. Labour market prospects of young people and other marginal groups seem to worsen as a consequence of increased stringency of the legislation. It is debatable whether marginal groups have gained much from the widespread policy strategy to liberalize regulations of temporary employment and leave regulations of regular employment intact.
9) Greece-
The present study reports on the generic employability skills required by employers for a range of accounting and financial type positions in Greece. Despite the high unemployment rates in Greece, employers claim that they cannot find qualified employees who possess the proper abilities that allow them to become competitive and offer more value-added goods and services. This paper derives the competencies needed by employers from job ads on the most browsed career website in Greece by employing content analysis as the research method. This approach allows a close and accelerated method to define competencies needed with very short time delay and additionally shows how industry is moving towards digitalization.
10) Ministry of Labour and Employment-
The National Policy on Safety, Health and Environment at workplace to eliminate the incidence of work related injuries, diseases, fatalities, disaster and loss of national assets. It aims to not only ensure achievement of a high level of occupational safety, health and environment performance through proactive approaches but also to enhance the well-being of the employee and society at large. The policy seeks to bring the national objectives into focus as a step towards improvement in safety, health and environment at workplace.
References-
1) Aestis, Philip & Ferreiro, Jesus & Gómez, Carmen, 2020. “Quality of employment and employment protection. Effects of employment protection on temporary and permanent employment.
2) Etleva Bajrami, 0000. “Self-employment as a solution for increasing employment,” Proceedings of Economics and Finance Conferences 11413148, International Institute of Social and Economic Sciences.
3) Luis Palma-Martos & Jose Luis Martin-Navarro, 1998. “Employment policies: A methodology approach to the identification of employment opportunities,” ERSA conference papers ersa98p428, European Regional Science Association.
4) Ministry of Labour and Employment GoI, 2015. “National Policy on Safety, Health and Environment at Work Place,”
5) Nancy H. Chau & Ravi Kanbur & Vidhya Soundararajan, 2022. “Employer power and employment in developing countries,” WIDER Working Paper Series wp-2022-100, World Institute for Development Economic Research (UNU-WIDER)
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6) Philip Arestis & Jesus Ferreiro & Carmen Gómez, 2020. “Quality of Employment and Employment Protection. Effects of Employment Protection on Temporary and Permanent Employment,”
7) Planning Commission Labour, Employment & Manpower Division, 2009. “Technical Note on Employment for the Eleventh Five Year Plan”.
8) Skedinger, Per, 2011. “Employment Consequences of Employment Protection Legislation,” Working Paper Series 865, Research Institute of Industrial Economics.
9) Sofia Asonitou, 2019. “An Exploration of Employability Competences of Greek Accountants: The Employers’ Opinion,” Springer Proceedings in Business and Economics,
10) Weiming Tian & Zhangyue Zhou & Zi‐cheng Wang & Wei‐guo Yang (2013): Self‐employment or wage‐employment.
Conclusion-
• The reason for the determinants of the evolution of employment and of the determinants of the quality of employment.
• After the analysis using the least square method, it concluded that the self employed have a significant positive relationship with the level of employment in the country.
• The National policy seeks to bring the national objectives into focus as a step towards improvement in safety, health and environment.
• The impact of employment protection legislation for permanent and temporary workers on total employment, permanent and temporary employment.